Ancient short notes...

Chapter 1, 2:

Political unity in Ancient India acheived twice - Ashoka and Samudragupta
Lingua Franca: first Prakrit then Sanskrit

Modern Historians:

Manusmriti translated into as 'A Code of Gentoo Laws' by Nathaniel Brassey Halhed during Warren Hastings tenure (1776)
Alexander Cunningham: set up Archaelogical Survey of India, also its first Director General. Aka father of Indian archaeology.
Sir William Jones: set up Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1784. Translated Abhijnana Shakuntalam (1789). He found European lang similar to Sanskrit.
Wilkins: trans Bhagavatgita 1785
Bombay Asiatic Society (1804), Asiatic Society of Great Britain (1823)
F Max Muller: Indologist. 'Sacred Books of East Series' (TRANSLATED VEDAS)

Anc Indians lacked a sense of time/chronology
despotic rule
other worldly
caste all pervasive
no nationhood or self gov.

VA Smith: 'Early History of India' (1st systematic history of anc India - 1904)
Rajendra Lal Mitra: Indo-Aryans book. Took rational view and proved that anc indians ate beef.
RamaKrishna Bhandarkar: political history of Deccan, Vaishanavism. Social reformer.
VK Rajwade: Maratha history, history of marriage.
Pandurang Vaman Kane: History of Dharmasastra.
Others: RK Bhandarkar, Hemchandra Raychaudari, RC Majumdar (History and Culture of Indian People).
KA Nilakanta: book on SI.
KP Jayaswal: exploded the myth of despotism, proved existence of republics.

3) Sources of History

Mound: elevated portion of land covering remains of old habitations. (Their study is called Stratigraphy)
Painted Grey Ware culture (1200-600BC): iron age culture of Gangetic plains and Ghaggar-Hakra valley. Successor of the Black and Red Ware culture.
Megaliths: structures made of stones.
History of climate and vegetation through pollen analysis - suggested that agri practiced in RJ and Kashmir around 7000-6000BC.
Numismatics: study of coins.
Some coins were also issued by guilds of merchants with permission of ruler. Shows that crafts and commerce were imp.

Inscriptions:

Epigraphy: study of inscriptions
Palaeography: Study of ancient handwriting.
Earliest inscriptions in Prakrit (3BC), Sanskrit (2AD), regional lang (9AD)..
Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum: collection of Mauryan and Gutpa inscriptions.
Ashokan inscriptions: majorly in Brahmi script (left to right), some in Kharoshthi Script (right to left) and Greek and Aramaic scripts (in Pak and Afghan).
Earliest inscriptions - Harappa, oldest deciphered - Ashokan (first by James Prinsep in 1837).
Firoz Shah Tughlaq found 2 pillars in Meerut (UP) and Topra (HY) and brought them to Delhi.

Literary sources:

Rig Veda 1500-1000BC, rest of the vedas, brahmanas, upanishads and Aranyakas 1000-500BC.
Early lit written in sutras (that is brief percepts). Ex Panini's grammar in 400BC.
Mahabharatha: 1st 1000BC-400AD with 8,800 verses (Jaya), 24,000 verses (Bharatha) and 1,00,000 verses (Mahabharatha or Satasahasri Samhita)
Ramayana: 500BC-1200AD. 6k to 24k verses.
Dharmasutras and Smritis: law books. Their commentaries - Dharmashastras.
Arthashastra is divided into 15 books, and later written by diff ppl.
Sangam Lit: 30k lines of poetry arranged in 8 anthologies - Ettuttokai. Poems collected in groups of 100 - Purananuru (400 of exterior). 2 main groups -> 1) Patinenkil Kannakku (18 lower connections) - older and 2) Pattupattu (10 songs). These are all secular texts, in praise of heros and heroines.

Foreign Accounts:

Sandrokottas: a contemporary of Alexandar who invaded India in 326BC. Mentioned in Greek accounts. Identified as CG Maurya - whose date of accession is fixed at 322BC. This date is very imp in chronology.
The Periplus of Erythrean Sea (anonymous writer describes Roman trade) and Ptolemy's Geography - both Greek.
Pliny's Natural History - Latin. describes India Italy trade.

Historical sense:

Puranas: dynastic history up to Guptas. 18 in no.; Events noted in future sense although noted after they have occured.
Different eras: Vikram Samvat (57BC), Shaka (78AD) and Gupta era (319AD).
100BC: Kharavela of Kalinga made a year-wise record of his life in the Hathigumpha inscription.
Ramacharita: by Sandhyakara Nandi (12thC) - conflict bw Kaivarta peasants and Pala prince Rampala.
Vikramanakadevacharita: by Bilhana. achievements of Vikramadiya 6 - a chalukyan king.
Mushika Vamsha: by Atula. Dynasty of Mushikas, who ruled N Kerala.
Paper first came to India 7-12thc AD

4) Geographical Setting - book

5) Stone Age - book

Prehistoric paintings

Bhimbetka (MP)
Lakhudiyar (UK)
Kupgallu, Piklihal and Tekkalkota (AP and KN)

6) Chalcolithic

Means stone copper phase
primarily rural
Malwa ware from Malwa culture - richest among chalcolithic cultures. Considered non-harrapan
Jorwe culture: 1400-700bc

Western Maha - Jorwe, Nevasa, Daimabad Chandoli, Songaon, Inamgaon
rural except Inamgaon and Daimabad which are urban
brown black soil and ber babul vegetation
largest is Daimabad (godavari valley) - famous for large no of bronze goods.

Navdatoli on Narmada: max amount of cereals found here
Chirand on Ganga
Ahar, Gilund in RJ: 2100-1500bc

Ahar has no microliths, which were typical of other chalcolithic sites
it possessed copper, original name was Tambavati (means place possessing copper)
Gilund - stone blade industry

Ganeshwar, RJ: 2800-2200BC

near Khetri mines
pre-harappan, contributed to HC - supplied Cu
some items found similar to HC
OCP found (BUT NOT proper OCP/Copper hoard culture)
couldn't develop urban culture like HC, becuase it didnt have similar adv of cultivation on flood plains

In SI, chalcolithic culture independent of HC
Some Chalco communities might have moved to plains and formed HC
In west gap of 4-5 centuries after chalo - could be due to decline in rainfall from 1200BC also due to digging stick which was not enough for black clayey soil when dry.
In Eastern India, with red soil, Chalcolithic time was immediately followed by iron phase, same with mid-ganga plains. Even in SI, chaclo -> megalithic culture using iron.
Different kinds of pottery: Black and red pottery: occassionally painted with white linear designs.
not acquianted with horse; ate beef but not pork
Burial in urns under their house in NS position in WI and EW position in SI
Settlement pattern, burials show ineq
Importance:

except thick forests and alluvial plains, chalco appears all over india
first to use painted pottery
SI - neolithic merged into chalco. In MH, RJ - they seem to be colonisers from CI.

Limtations:

domesticated animals - slaughtered but didn't milk, practised agri (west - wheat, east - rice)
jhum agri no proper digging tools
did not know burnt bricks; houses from mud bricks or stone
many mass burials of children => no longevity
copper supply limited, no knowledge of bronze tech
didnt know art of writing

although most chacolithic culutres were younger than IVC, they did not benefit much from it.
Copper hoards and Ochre Coloured Pottery:

Gungeria, MP: Largest hoard
more than half the hoards found in Ganga Yamuna doab
~2000-1500BC
Jodhpura, RJ
may be ended due to water logging etc. not clear
were junior contemporaries of HC and seem to have links and exchanges with them

7) Indus Valley Civilisation

Announced by John Marshall
Must have been a break bw early Harappa and Harappan civilisation - burning and abadnoment of some sites.
Features:
bricks 4:2:1 ratio
water reservoir at Dholavira => irrigation
Ploughing, mixed cropping, rice - relatively rare
pots made of faience (silica, mixed with colour and fired)
Chanhudaro - exclusively dedicated for crafts production
script - not alphabetical, right to left
lower weight denominations - binary and higher - decimal
fire altars found at Kalibangan and Lothal

8, 9) Vedic Period

Gomat - wealthy person
Duhitr - daughter, who milks
Govala - buffalo, means cow haired
Later Vedic ppl DID NOT know the use of metal money.
No taxation system, no professional army
wooden plough share and indiscriminate killings for sacrifices => couldn't produce much and pay a lot of taxes. So gap bw rajanya and vaishya wasn't very wide in early vedic period.

10) Jainism and Buddhism

Rise of cities in NE India - Kaushambi (UP), Kushinagar (UP), Banaras, Vaishali (Bihar), Chirand and Rajgir + use of coins => imp of vaishyas inc.
Brahminical Dharmasutras decried lending money on interest + wars + varna => against interest of traders.
Both J and B are a rebellion against the material advancement of new life.

Jainism:

1st Tirthankara: Rishabhadev, born in Ayodhya.
23rd: Parshvanath, Varanasi. Gave up royal life.
Mahavira (540 BC - 468 BC) born in Vaishali. Father Siddhartha - Kshatriya clan called Jnatrika. Mother Trishala, Lichchhavi (her brother Chetaka's daughter was married to Bimbisara).
He travelled to Koshala, Magadha, Mithila, Champa etc. Died at Pavapuri(near Rajgir).
Kaivalya aka Juan - conquered misery and happiness. So called Jina means conqueror.
Jainism recognised the existence of Gods but placed them in a lower order than Jina. Didn't condemn varna unlike B. Said through pure life lower castes can also attain salvation.
Triratna: right knowledge, faith and action.
Prohibited war, agri. so ppl took to trade.
Admitted both men and women.
SECTS:

Great famine in Magadha 200 years after death of Mahavira - lasted for 12 years. A group went south under the leadership of Bhadrabahu. Rest stayed back under Sthalabahu. When the group came back, differences arose - they became digambaras, those stayed back were shvetambaras - because the sthalabahu guy changed rules.
According to the Digambara sect: five Shruta Kevalins in Jainism - Govarddhana Mahamuni, Vishnu, Nandimitra, Aparajita and Bhadrabahu -> it is a term used in Jainism for those ascetics who have complete knowledge of Jain Agama (texts).
The first Jain Council was convened at Pataliputra by Sthulabahuin the beginning of the 3rd century B.C.

Basadis: Jain monastic establishments.
Spread to OR when Kharvale patronised (4BC?), TN, Malwa, GJ, RJ etc.
Abandoned Sanskrit intially, used Prakrit.
Religious lit written in Ardhamagadhi (Jainas composed its grammar and earliest lit), compiled in Valabhi (GJ) in 6thC AD.
Many regional lang developed out of Prakrit - like Shauraseni -> Marathi lang.
Later used Sanskrit also, contributed to Kannada.

Buddhism:

Siddhartha (563BC-483BC): born in Lumbini near Kapilavasthu (Nepal). Shakya Kshatriya family, mother from Koshalan dynasty.
Practical reformer, didn't talk about soul and Brahma - addresed worldly problems.
Ashtangika Marga: Right observation, determination, speech, action, livelihood, exercise, memory, meditation.
Special features behind rapid spread:

Didn't indulge in philosophy appealed to common people.
Attacked varna, later women also admitted. Sangha kept open to all.
Magadha was placed outside the holy Aryavarta ie the land of Aryas. So people of Magadha readily joined.
Use of pali.
Organised preaching under Sangha lead to rapid spread. Monarchies of Magadha, Koshala, Kaushambi patronised.
Asked ppl not to accumulate wealth and essentially wanted to eradicate poverty as it would bread hatred and violence.
Literary activities in Apabhramsa ("corrupt" or "non-grammatical language", that which deviates from the norm of Sanskrit grammar) and hybrid Sanskrit.

Decline casues: by 12C AD

Succumbed to rituals and cermonies. Victim to evils of Brahminism.
Brahmins reformed religion to meet Buddhist challenge.
B monks gradually cut off from mainstream, life of luxury, wealth, corruption, royal grants etc.
Idol worship from 1c AD.
Pushyamitra Sunga persectued Buddhsits. Huna King Mihirakula, worshipper of Shiva also. Shaivite Shashanka of Gauda cult cut off Bodhi tree.
Rich monsatries also became targets of foreign invaders like Turks etc.

Criticism:

It also tried to consolidate changes in socio eco life of people. Ex debtors, slaves not allowed. So money lender and slave owners not offended.
Though monks criticised Brahmins, they were similar in many ways. didn't participate in production activities and depended on alms or gift.
Social order based on class still suported.
No escape or route to nirvana was provided for lay followers.

Buddhist text Suttanipata - declares cattle to be source of annada, vannada, sukhada (food, beauty, happiness). Brahminical insistence on sacredness of cow derived from B.
Created new awareness of intellect and rationality.
Pali lit 3 types - saying and teachings of B; rules to be observed in Sangha; philosophical exposition of dhamma.
1st human statues worshipped in India were probably those of Buddha.

11) Territorial States and 1st Magadhan Empire

From 6thC BC widespread use of iron in eastern UP, Bihar created conditions for formation of large territorial states. Warrior class and weapons became important, agri tools created.
Productivity increased and taxes could be collected. With these, princes maintained military and admin. Surplus also helped in maintaining towns.
People now owed allegiance to Janapada or territory rather than Jana or tribe.

Growth of Magadha:

Through policy of aggression and expansion, marital alliances (Bimbi)
Bimbisara (Haryanka dyns.) -> Ajatashatru -> Udayin -> Shishungas dyn. -> Nandas -> Mauryas
Most serious rival was Avanti. Chanda Pradyota Mahasena (avanti guy) later became frnds, he got jaundice so royal physician Jivaka was sent.
Mahapadma Nanda - claimed to be sole sovereign Ekarat
Why Magadha?

Advantageous geographical position - richest iron resources close to Rajgir. Even Avantis had, that's why they were strong too.
Both capitals, Rajgir and Pataliputra were strategic points. Rajgir was surrounded by 5 hills and they were all fortified.
Pataliputra was at the confluence of 3 rivers - Ganga, Gandak, Son and Ghaghra joined nearby. Enabled easy communications + became invulnerable due to natural boundary - true water front/Jaladurga.
Located at centre of middle Gangetic plain - very fertile. Heavy rainfall enabled agri w/o irrigation.
Benefited from rise of towns and metal money, imposed tolls.
Special adv in military org - intro elephants, got supply from east. (1st to use elephants on large scale) - used in storming forts and marshy areas wo roads.
Unorthodox character of Magadha - considered outside Aryavarta. Greater enthu for expansion as they were newly vedicised.

Life in the age of Buddha

6th C BC marks the begining of NBPW (Northern Black Polished Ware phase) - glossy, shiny type used by rich people.
Begining of metal money, 2nd urbanisation (after IVC), increase in population as compared to Painted Grey Ware (PGW) settlements.
Towns with guilds of artisans formed - Saddalaputta at Vaishali had potter's shops, Vessas were merchant streets
Trade was facilitated by use of money. Nishka and Satamana in Vedic texts could ve been prestige objects but wasn't money.
Earliest coins used as money found in 6th BCE. punch marked and generally silver and copper.
3 types of villages mentioned in Pali texts:

Typical village headed by bhojaka
Suburban craft vilages
border villages - merged into forests

Paddy transplantation or wet paddy production + iron pough + fertile alluvium increased yield.
Tech was central to rise. Iron was from Singhbum and Mayurbhanj.
Important ministers:

Varsakara of Magadha - who helped Ajathashatru overthrow Lichchhavis of Vaishali
Dirgacharayana of Koshala

kin based polity of vedic times changed to varna based order.
Grihapatis = vaishyas (don't confuse with village heads or landlords)
Toll officers - Shaulkika and Shulkadhyaksha
Sabha, Samiti disappeared -> parishads, made of only brahmins.
Tribal oligarchies: pre Mauryan (Shakyas, Lichchhavis), post Mauryan (Malavas, kshudrakas) - these later ones allowed brahmins and kshatriyas but pre Mauryan ones didn't include brahmins in assembly

In a state on the bank of Beas river, membership was restricted to those who could supply at least one elephant to the state.
Republican trad of india as old as the buddha
brahmanas exercised great influence on monarchy, but had no place in republics, so they didn't recognise their presence in their law books.

Indian legal and judicial system originated in this period.
Tribal law had no class distinctions but Dharmasutra clearly prescribed varna order and sep civil and criminal law
Summary: Iron -> adv agri -> taxes -> State and military -> to keep the sys going -> varna order

12) Iranian and Macedonian Invasions

NE - Magadha emp consolidated. But NW made of small princialities like Kambojas, Gandharas, Madras who fought. Rendered Hindukush unguarded.
Achamenian Rulers of Iran first occupied. They got loads of revenue, fertile land, T&C etc. (1st was Iranian ruler Darius in 516BC) - became Iranian Satrapy or Province.
Indo-Iranian contact lasted for 200 yrs. T&C, Iranian scribes into Karoshthi script, Iranian coins found. BUT they didn't intoduce punch-marked coins in India. Monuments like Ashokas bell shaped capitals inspired from them, words like lipi (Iran - dipi) mentioned in preamble of Ashokan edicts.
Greeks got to know abt Indian wealth thru Iranians -> Alexander came.
4th BC, Iran lost to Greeks under Alexander of Macadonia.
father of History - Herodotus.
Alex Came to India - Ambhi of Taxila submitted, Porus bw Jhelum and chenab first guy who gave tough fight.
Impact of Alex:

1st contact bw anc Europe and anc India.
Opened 4 distinct land and sea routes.
trade, cities like Alexandria in Kabul
Alex's historians left many records and accurately dated - act as benchmark to understand Indian history + also geographical accounts. They tell about sati, girl salves, fine oxen, art of Indian carpentry etc.
Destroyed petty states, which later enabled unifciation under Mauryas.

14, 15) Mauryas

Chandragupta Maurya: overthrew Seleucus - Greek, who ruled to the west of Indus -> unified NW. He sent Megasthenes (Indika), Greek ambassador to CM's court.
Bindusara - know for continued links with Greek princes. Ashoka is his son.
Ashoka:

Inscriptions: 39 (major, minor rock edicts, pillar etc.)
Ashoka's name occurs in copies of minor rock edicts ar 3 places in KN and 1 in MP. All others mention Devanampiya piyadasi (Sangam lit also mentions him by this).
1st king to directly speak to people through inscriptions
But not extreme pacifist

Abandoned policy of physical occupation in favour of cultual conquest post Kalinga war. Bherighosha was replaced with Dhammaghosha.
It was a practical policy of consolidating his vast empire.
He retained Kalinga after conquest, didn't give up.
Nothing to show that he disbanded the huge army.
Although he asked tribal ppl to follow policy of dharma, he threatened them if they violated established social order. Officers called Rajukas were appointed to both reward and punish people.
Kandahar inscription - success of his policy with hunters and fishermen who gave up killing animals and took to settled agri life.
Set a high ideal - as a paternal king.
Principles meant to maintain existing social order on the basis of tolerance.
Almost 1st to follow policy of peace, cultural conquet and non aggression. May be only Akhnaton of Egypt practiced pacifist policy in 14thC BC.
Followed deliberate and systematic policy of acculturation. Made tribals and other pay taxes, respect to paternal power, royal authority and for priest and monks who helped enforce his authority.

He gave Lumbini exemption from bali (tribute) and bhaga (ie share in produce) was reduced to 1/8th.
Completely prohibited slaughter of animals, shunned rituals.
He deputed officers in far flung area, along with traders and missionaries, they spread the material culture of Gangetic basin. Such as punch marked coins, iron plough, NBPW, prevalence of writing, burnt bricks, ring wells etc. (ring wells => ppl didn't have to settle only on river banks). Shatavahanas, Chetis, Cheras, Cholas, Pandyas all benefitted form this.
Retired in 232BC.

Administration:

Mauryans maintained 600,000 foot soldieers, 30k cavalry and 9k elephants. (acc to Pliny) Also maintained a navy.
Amatyas - civil servants, same like IAS
Adhyakshas - revenue officers; Dhammamahamatras
Virgin land cultivation - through vaishyas and shudras

State control:

Arthashastra: Calls king Dharmapravartaka - means promulgator of social order.
Royal absolutism was a natural culmination of the policy of military conquest followed by princes of Magadha.
Elaborate state machinery and espionage
Tirthas - important functionaries, paid in cash

Economy:

27 adhyakshas to regulate economic activities
domestic slaves were present, Arthashatra said they were used to expand land. But Megasthenes said no slaves.
Stone pillars were made in Chunar near Varanasi and transported to other places from there.
Samaharta - highest officer of assessment
Sannidhata - chief custodian of state treasury
rural store houses show that some taxes were paid in kind also
steel objects found from 200BC, art spread from here

Decline:

Brahminical reaction - brahmins developed an antipathy towards Ashoka because his policies didn't benefit them. ie why Shungas and Kanvas (who ruled MP), Satavahanas, Nandas were all Brahmins.
Financial crisis: huge bureaucracy, army, land grants of Ashoka
Oppressive rule: one uprising in taxila during Bindusara, same during Ashoka. To tackle this Ashoka introduced rotation of officers in Kalinga, Ujjain and Taxila. He himself also went on pilgrimage tours to supervise.
New knowledge in outlying areas: lost the relative material adv that Gangetic basin had.
Neglect of NWF and Great wall of China: Scythians attacked China but when emperor Shih Hunag Ti built GWC in 220BC, they moved towards India. This pushed Parthians, Shakas and Greeks towards us.
Finally Pushyamitra Sunga killed last Mauryan ruler - Brihadratha. Persecuted buddhists. They were succeeded by Kanvas.

16) Central Asian Contacts

Indo Greeks -> Shakas -> Parthians -> Kushanas

Indo Greeks:

1st ones, pushed as far as pataliputra
Menader - most famous, aka Milinda (Nagasena fellow)
Capital - Sakala (PJ), invaded Ganga Yamuna doab
1st rulers to issue gold coins and also first to issue coins which could be assigned to some dynasty (early punch marked coins weren't so)
introduced Hellenistic features in art - like Gandhara art

The Shakas:

5 branches - Afghan, Taxila, Mathura, western India, upper Deccan
57BC: a king from Ujjain defeated Shakas, called himself Vikramaditya and started Vikram Samvat (era). This name came in vogue from then.
benefitted from GJ trade, many silver coins
Rudradaman 1 - most famous (130-150AD). Repaired Sudarshana Lake in Kathiawar. Sanskrit lover - 1st ever long inscription in chaste sanskrit (earlier ones were in Prakrit) - JUNAGARH rock inscription.

Parthians:

from Iran
famous king - Gondophernes, in his time St Thomas came to spread christianity

Kushans:

aka Yeuchis or Tocharians - nomadic tirbes from central asian steppes
Oxus to Ganga - ie Khosran (CA) to Varanasi
2 successive dynasties

Kadphises

Khadphises 1: issued coins south of Hindukush, copper coins imitating roman coins
Khadphises 2: large no. of gold money

Kanishka:

mathura - 2nd capital, 1st - peshawar
upto gangetic basin
very pure gold coins
started 78AD as Shaka era - adapted by GoI

Impact:

Structures and pottery: use of burnt bricks, tiles. Pottery in red ware.
Better cavalry: horsemanship, used reins, saddles. Introduced tunics, turbans, trousers and long coats. cap , helmet boot etc - gave adv
Trade and agri: received gold from Altai mts in CA. Controlled silk route, large scale irrigation in Pak, afghan etc.
Polity: feudatory, decentrlaised, king of kings. Satarap system - each satarap was placed under a Sataarap. Innovative sys like dual hereditary, more than 1 king ruling at the same time, same place etc.
New elements in indian soc: no one else assimilated so well in indian soc, took status as kshatriyas. even took indian names such as Vasudeva.
religious developments: vaishnavism, shaivism, buddhism. Greek Ambassador Heliodorus set up a pillar in honour of vasudeva in Vidisa, MP. Both Shiva and Buddha appear on coins.
Mahayana Buddhism: emerged due to big leap in trade and artisinal activity + influx of central asian. Monks couldn't afford to lose the cash donations from growing body of trders adn artisans + foreigners were non-veg so wanted to welcome them. Gradually discipline became so slack that some resumed householders life -> Mahayana.
Gandhara and Mathura art
Literature:

patronised Sanskrit
earliest kavya style - found in Junagadh inscription, Kathiawar by Rudradaman
Kanishka: patronised Asvagosha, nagarjuna, Charaka, Vasumitra (buddhist scholar- last council guy)
Asvagosha - Buddhacharita, Saundarananda (Sanskrit Kavya)
Avadanas - in hybrid Buddist sanksrit like Mahavastu, Divyadana
contributed to indian theatre by introducing curtain -> ie why Yavanika
Kamasutra - by Vatsyayana, life of a city bred person
S&T: horoscope, leather shoes, copper coins. Glass making (very imp)

17) The Satavahanas

Same as Andhras - mentioned in Puranas (but don't actually mention Satavahanas)
Yajna Sri Satakarani: lover of trade and navigation. Coins with ships.
Used iron ores of Karimanagar and Warangal, gold frm Kolar fields.
But didn't issue gold coins, instead lead coins which is abundant.
Used paddy transplantation - KG became rice bowl, high quality cotton.
Admin: Rajas (could strike coins) -> Mahabhoja -> Senapati
They were Brahmins but also promoted Buddhism. Their successors Ikshvakus also developed Amravati etc, max. Even build earliest Brahminical brick temples there.
3 viharas at Nashik with inscriptions of Nahapana and Gautamiputra ~1-2AD
1st ppl to make land grants.
Official lang was Prakrit. King Hala wrote Gathasattasai or Gathasaptasati.
Peddbankur, Karimnagar: fire baked bricks, flat perforated tiles, many brick wells, covered drains with soak pits found.
imp coasts - Kalyani (west coast), Gandakasela and Ganjam on east coast.
Identified through Metronymics - means names derived from that of the mother.
Gautami putra claimed to be unique brahmana (eka brahmana) and destroyer of pride of kshtriyas.

18) History in Deep South / Sangam

Upto 2ndc BC, upland portions of peninsula were occupied by Megalith builders - know for their stone graves.
They knew pottery, iron making, red ware, black and red ware etc. but did not practice any advance agri. May be basic agri + mostly pastoralists.
Megalithic culture can be traced back to 1000BC. Cholas, Pandyas, Cheras from Ashokas inscriptions were probably late megalith culture. Out of those Satyaputras not yet identified. Also mentioned Tamraparnis of SL.
They came in contact with material culture of north in 300BC and began paddy cultivation.
Tamizhakam: cultural contacts bw north and south. Route to south called Dakshinapatha - famous for pearls, gold, precious stones etc. Brahminical influence also percolated.
3 early kingdoms: Pandyas, Cholas and Cheras - fought amongst each other.
Pandyas:

Megasthenes said they were famous for pearls and also had a woman ruler, may be some matrilineal influences.
Capital Madurai

Chola: almost ended after 4th AD, insignificant upto 9th AD

Capital Cholamandalam, bw pennar and Velar rivers.
Uraiyur - famous for cotton trade.
Ruler named Elara conquered SL (~2nd BC)
Karikala: founded Puhar (same as Kaveripattanam - Chola capital), constructed 160km embankment along Kaveri river. It had a dock was a great centre for trade.
Also maintained efficient navy.

Cheras:

Romans set up 2 regiments at Muziris (aka Cranganore) to protect their trade interests. Also built a temple of Augustus.
Imp king - Senguttuvan, the Red or Good Chera.
Authors of Shilppadikaram and Manimekalai were friends and contemporaries of Chera King Senguttuvan.

Though they fought continuous wars with each other and SL, had good natural resources and foreign trade. Spices, elephants, ivory, pearls, precious stones, muslin and silk, cotton etc. Monsoon discovery in 1st AD intensified trade.
Social classes:

Enadi: capitains of army given this title
Vellalas: rich peasants
Arasar: ruling class
Kadaisiyar: agri labour almost like slaves
Padiyars: agri laboureres, and also worked in animal skins.
Caste distinctions not as sharp as in later times during Sangam period.

Sangam lit: 2 groups -> Narrative (Melkannakku or 18 major works) and Didatic (Kilkanakku or 18 minor works). Narrative texts are works of heroic poetry. Didatic texts prescribe a code of conduct.
Virakat: practice of raising hero stones when he dies.

LITERATURE:

Chola period

Periya Puranam	Aka Tiruttontarpuranam Lives of the Nayanars
Kalingattupparani	By Jayankondar Kalinga war fought by Kulotunga
Moovarula	By Ottakoothar (court poet of 3 early Chola kings Vikram Chola, Kulotunga 2 and Rajaraja 2) Life of Chola kings
Tamil Grammar	Kalladam by Kalladanar Yapperungalam by Amirthasagarar, a Jain Nannul by Pavanandhi Virasoliyam by Buddhamitra

19) Post Maurya - Crafts and Trade

Shakas, Kushanas, Satavahanas, early Tamil states (200BC - 300AD)
Karimnagar, Nalgonda - iron artifacts
Mathura centre for cloth called Shataka. Dyeing also imp such as at Uraiyur (TN), Arikamedu
Oil wheel - oil manuf, inscriptions on cave constructions, donations etc => crafts flourished
Terracotta - found at Yelleshwaram and Kondapur in Telangana. Associated with upper classes, went out of fashion after decline of Guptas.
Thriving trade with East romans mostly in aristocratic necessities. Initially thru road, later due to obstructions (such as Parthians, who though imported our iron troubled us) + monsoon discovery went for sea routes.
Broach and Sopara on west cost imp ports. Arikamedu and Tamralipti on east coast.
Uttarapatha: trade route from Taxila - PJ - Yamuna - Mathura - Ujjain - Broach.
Evidence of many Romans living in SI, but not many Indians moved there.
3rd C AD - Roman Empire banned trade with India. (Pliny cried in 77AD)

20, 21) Guptas

From 335-455AD kept north India politcally united.
Factors that helped them - fertile lands, iron ores of central india and Bihar, proximity to areas in north India that carried silk trade
Centres - Aunganga(middle Gangetic basin), Prayag(Allahabad), Saketa(Ayodhya) and Magadha.
Founded by Chandragupta 1
Samudragupta - Napolean of India (forcibly united India through conquests). Allahabad inscription by court poet Harisena on the same pillar as that of Ashoka. Meghavarman of SL sent him a missionary to request to build a Buddhist Temple at Gaya - granted.
Chandragupta 2 - probably mentioned in inscription on iron pillar near Qutub Minar.

Title Vikramaditya as a mark of victory over Shaka Kshatrapas of Western India => gave access to ports and T&C.
Kalidas and Amarasimha (he wrote Amarkosha - a Sanskrit lexicon) were court poets
Chinese pilgrim Fa-hsien visited.

Administration:

fedual set up - ruled over tributary princes or feudatories => neither needed nor possessed elaborate admin machinery like Mauryas.
brahminical power grew (Guptas were vaishyas, needed support of Brahmins for legitimacy)
land taxes more than t&c
Vishiti - forced labour to serve army and officials
Judicial sys developed. Criminal and civil laws were demarcated, inheritance laws put down.
Kumaramatyas - officers, appointed by king, paid in cash.
Bhuktis (Uparika- head) -> Vishayas (vishayapati) -> Vithis -> Villages
2 new taxes were levied in Gupta time (generally taxes increased a lot) -> Uparikara and Udranga

Gold coins not as pure as Kushanas, some silver but very few copper coins, means use of money not much in common ppl as it was during kushanas.
Trade decline after 6th AD:

Roman emp decline. In 550AD they learnt silk making form Chinese.
silk weavers from west coast migrated to Malwa and took up small production units to become self sustained. Silk trade with Iran stopped by mid 6thC
Arab middlemen monopolised trade.

Social:

Narada Smriti - brahminic privileges
caste proliferated - assimilation of foreigners and tribals
Shudras, women allowed to listen to R&M + worship Krishna. Shudras allowed to do some domestic rites which again filled Brahmin pockets.
1st example of Sati - 550AD. Fall in women's position due to lack of property rights and livelihood options.
Rise of Bhagavatism

Golden age - art and lit

poor in archi
secular lit - mrichchhakatika, kalisadasa etc.
Common thing - no tragedies + higher and lower classes dont speak same lang. Women and shudras speak prakrit and higher classes use Sanskrit

Decline causes:

attacks by Hunas from 450AD
Yashodharman - a feudatory cleared out Hunas and claimed large part of NI - bad blow to Guptas
Rise of feudatories, land grant for religious purpose => fall in revenues
Loss of Western India, decline in trade money
Desperate attempts to maintain gold currency by reducing content of pure gold, but no avail.

23) Harsha (606-647)

Made Kanauj as seat of power. Pataliputra declined coz:

T&C was main reason for Pataliputra's rise + wide use of money and collection of tolls from traders who came from all directions and by 4 rivers. But trade declined and money decreased
Officers and soldiers were paid by land grants and P lost imp.
Power shifted to military camps (Skandhavaras) and places of strategic imp such as Kanauj.
K located right in the middle of doab, of fertile plains, yet located on an elevated area, so was fortified well.
K represents feudal order and P reps pre-feudal order.

Banabhatta court poet wrote Harshacharita.
Hsuang Tsang from China, I-tsing also visited Nalanda.
Shashanka of Gauda, shaivite was main rival. He cut off tree at Bodhgaya.
More feudal and decentralised, paid in land grants so less coins.
1st Shaivite then Buddhism.

Grand assembly at Kanauj to publicise Mahayana principles. Kamarupa ruler Bhaskaravarman attended. <some random action stuff happened>
Assembly at Prayag - gave away all his possessions. (to popularise himself among ppl)

Wrote 3 dramas - Priyadarshika, Nagananda, Ratnavali. <may be Dhavaka wrote>

Deccan Kingdoms

Pallavas (6-9thC AD)

capital - Kanchipuram
Patronised Brahminism. Lang - Prakrit and Sanskrit
Defeated by chola king Aditya 1
Literature:

Mahendravarman 1 - Mattavilasa Prahasana (satire play in Sanskrit, poking fun at B&J, Kapalika Shavites)
Dandin (Sankrit scholar) in Narasimhavarman 2 court
Perundevanar - translated Mahabharata as Bharathavenba in tamil
Ghatika at Kanchi (attracted students frm all over)

Inscriptions - Mandapattu (hails Mahendravarman) as vichitrachita (constructed temple for Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva wo bricks, metal or mortar - basically rock cut)

Chalukyas (6-8th C AD)

Capital - Badami
Brahminism
Defeated by Rashtrakutas
Aihole inscription mentions defeat of Harsha by Pulakesin 1 (title Paramesvara). Got defeated by Mammala near Kanchi.
Unique - highly centralised admin

Rashtrakutas (8-10th C AD)

Founder - Dantidurga
Kannada mother tongue, patronised Sanskrit
Vaishnavism, Shaivism flourished
College at Salatogi
economy good - Arab trade
Literature:

Sanskrit lit: Trivikaram - Nalachampu, Halayudha - Kavirahasya
Jain lit: Jinasena - Parsvabhudaya, Gunabhadra - Adipurana (stories of Jain saints)
Grammar: Sakatayana - Amogavritti
Math: Viracharya - Ganitasaram
Kannada lit beginning: Amoghavarsha (Kavirajamarga), Pampa (Vikramasena Vijaya), Ponna (Santipurana)

Imperial Cholas (9-11th C AD)

Capital - Tanjore
founder - Vijayalaya
Shaivism and Vaishnavism
Rajaraja 1 - Buddhist monastery at Nagapattinam
Rajendra 1 - irrigation tank called Cholagangam
Officials - Perundanam, Sridanam
Kadagams - military cantonments, army traning
Caste system -> 2 divisions (Valangai, Idangai)
women's position worsened, sati, devadasi
Peruvazhis - trunk roads
Uttirameru inscription - details of admin

Contacts with others:

Burmese started Teravad Buddhism
Traders and conquerors backs missionaris. Suvarnabhumi and Suvarnadvipa show India's search for gold.
Largest buddhist temple - Borobudur, Indonesia.
Kamboja, Champa - empires set up by Indians (Shaivites + Sanskrit)
Afghan - Begram (known for ivory work) and Bamiyan Statues

Eastern India:

Nalas, Matharas, Vaishthas, Manas
500AD - Matharas started the practice of dividing year into 12 lunar months
Kalidasa mentions practice of paddy transplant in Vanga, donno if indigenous.

Transformation of Ancient Phase

Social and agrarian crisis: central factor that transformed ancient Indian society into medeival was the practice of land grants. In 3-4C AD a deep social crisis described as Kaliyuga in the Puranas took place. Varnas or social classes discarded the functions assigned to them. Lower orders refused to stick the duties assigned to them and to pay taxes, this led to varna sanakara or intermixture of social classes. To overcome this, more and more land grants were given so that those not obeying social order could be monitored closely + tribals brought into fold.
Rise of landlords: power of King was undermined in post Gupta period - both through grants to Brhamins and payments to officials in the form of lands. All this created vested interest at the cost of royal authority.
New agrarian economy
Decline of trade and towns: from 6th C AD onwards there was a sharp decline. Western Roman trade ended in 3rd C AD, silk tarde with Iran and Byzantium stopped in the middle of 6th C. Some trade with SEA and China continued but benefits were reaped by Arab middlemen. Decline of trade for 300 years after 6th C is marked by practical absence of gold coins in the country. Hsuan Tsang visited several towns associated with the Buddha but found them dilapidated. Decline of towns led to smaller production units so that they could meet all their needs of diff items.
Change in Varna system: multiplicity + tribals. What was done by slaves and other producing sections in Greek and Rome under the threat of a whip was done by vaishyas and shudras out of conviction formed through brahminical indoctrination and the varna system.
Cultural development: cultural units began to be formed in 6-7th C, later became today's States. The idea of cultural groups was recognised by both foreign and Indian sources. Hsuan Tsang mentions several nationalities. Jaina books notice 18 major peoples or nationalities. From 7th C AD, imp change in lingusitic history - emergence of Bengali, Maithili, Oriya, Hindi etc. Jaina Prakrit works of GJ, RJ saw regional lang develop. Isolation -> each region own lang. On break up of Gupta empitre, independent principalities hindered country-wise contacts + trade also dec.
Bhakti and Tantricism: Hindu Gods began hierarchically placed.

Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, Shakti, Ganapati - became panchadeva.
Vedic Gods like Indra, Varuna and Yama became lokpalas or security guards.
Monastic orgs of Shaivites, b&j were divided into 5 ranks - highest rank to acharya (coronation like a prince), then Upadhyaya and Upasaka.
Bhakti which emphasised complete devotion to God was like absolute dependece of tenants on the land owners.

S&T:

Indians were first to make steel - called wootz, exported all over.
2nd BC - zero was discovered
Apastamba - geometry of altars
Aryabhata (5th C)- trigonometry, position of planets, eclipses, circumpherecne of earth, sun stationary etc.
Varahamihira (6th C) - Brihatsamhita moon rotates around earth etc.
Nalanda - earliest example of residential cum teaching insti. Entrance test through Dvarapanditas.

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